Factors Affecting Growth & Visual Performance
Factors Affecting Visual Outcome
Showpig Selection
Showpig Management
Showpig Nutrition
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Most pastures can be greatly improved with the application of good management practices. Fertilization, drainage, rotational grazing, regular clipping, chemical weed control, pasture renovation, reseeding, or a combination of these management techniques will often improve pasture productivity and provide flexibility to a forage program. The lack of any of these or overstocking or overgrazing will limit pasture production, but, more important, the pastures will be invaded by rush, moss, buttercup, tansy ragwort, thistle, or other weed species. The presence of these weeds are symptoms of poor pasture management. The inclusion of good management in the pasture program is costly and may not be economical to improve pastures on small acreages.

Before deciding on the degree of pasture management to follow, determine forage needs and establish the limits of your inputs. Ask yourself some questions. Do you have enough land to support at least one animal? If not, can you defer animal grazing or remove the animals from the pasture to allow the pasture plants to regrow? How many animal days grazing to you need? How much grazing can you use? Is it possible to preserve excess forage you grow? Is baling harvest or silage harvest possible or available? Do you have hay storage? Are you willing to invest in seeding or clipping machinery or can you hire pasture clipping and seed bed preparation? Consider these needs and the possible investments and then decide if it is better to buy forages. It may be that you will want an improved pasture program for the pride in doing a job well, regardless of the cost.

SELECTION OF MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES

Pasture improvement can begin in steps. Begin with moderate fertilization, pasture clipping, rotational grazing, and controlled stocking rate to avoid the need to reseed.

First, control the stocking rate. The carrying capacity of forage land varies with soil fertility, moisture availability, drainage, and other factors, but the following table will guide you on land requirement for livestock in western Washington for productive pastures. Naturally, an improved management program may change these requirements.

Horses require more grazing area because they do not graze evenly since they trample considerable forage area, and require more running area than other livestock. If this minimum land requirement is not available, other temporary grazing or run area must be provided or a good pasture is not possible.

Second, use controlled grazing. Some type of rotational or alternate grazing make pasture and animal management easier. The total grazing area should be divided into three or more equal-sized pastures. Graze one paddock down to 3 – 6 inches, and move the animals to the next pasture. Then, clip the old pasture and refertilize. Irrigate if available. The best plan is to stock heavily to remove forage in 10-14 days, allow plants to regrow for a period of about four weeks and the regraze. Remember, stocking rates must be determined by forage availability during mid-summer or overgrazing can result. Overgrazing will reduce productivity and allow weeds to establish, particularly in the fall. Excess forage during peak growth times will need to be preserved by baling, silage, deferred grazing, or by renting pastures to neighbors. Deferred grazing of spring-growth forage results in very poor quality and in very high forage loss. You can establish your stocking rate for early summer growth but then you will need to remove animals from the pastures in mid-summer.

Grazing during wet periods may cause soil compaction, resulting in poor aeration and moisture penetration and reduced plant growth. Do not let animals graze pastures during periods when soils are wet.

Third, provide adequate fertilization. The fertilizer needs are best determined by soil tests. A soil test kit may be obtained from Washington State University. Request soil sampling instructions from you local county Cooperative Extension office. Obtain the ‘Standard Test plus Special Test for Lime Needs and Boron.” A soil test every 3-5 years should save dollars in fertilizer costs through buying only fertilizer elements needed.

In the absence of a soil test, pastures with a good legume population should annually receive 40lb. N, 80lb. P205 and 80lb. K20 per acre (400lb. 10-20-20). This should be made in two applications, one during spring and the other in late summer or prior to fall rains. If no vigorous clover is present in the pasture, the additional application of 40 to 60lb N (200-300 lb. of 21-0-0) every 4-6 weeks will keep the pasture productive. Adequate fertilization will increase the protein value of the forage raised. Do not apply fertilizer in the summer if moisture is unavailable. Lime should be applied at seeding time and worked into the seedbed, but for pastures that are not reseeded, agricultural lime flour should be applied at about 1-2 tons per acre every 3 – 5 years. The best time to apply lime is in late summer or fall.

Fourth, clip and drag the pasture regularly. Regular clipping and dragging after grazing are two of the more important practices needed to maintain forages in leafy condition for best animal preference, to encourage forage tillering and new growth and to control weeds.

A small tractor with rotary mower should be the highest priority machinery investment for a good pasture management program. A pasture harrow or short section of weighted fence can serve as a drag.

RENOVATING OR RESEEDING PASTURE

Renovation and complete reseeding of pastures is costly and should be undertaken only when the possibility of success is high. Ideally, it would be best to plow the pasture and grow an annual crop such as corn or oats for one year and reseed the next year. Growing an annual crop prior to reseeding a pasture helps remove the broadleaf and grass weeds with strong root systems, destroys mole runs, breaks down the compacted sod and allows the preparation of a good seedbed while levelling the pasture prior to seeding with pasture seeding equipment.

For best results, the land should be plowed following the cleanup crop, the disced several times and harrowed to form a clean, fine, and firm seedbed. When the seeding is made in mid-April, the best and most dependable establishment will be achieved. Late seedings in May and early June are less dependable, often fail, and are more subject to drought and weed problems. In many cases, seeding made in late May or early June do not establish deep enough root systems to survive summer moisture stress. Also, bacterial nodulation of legumes fails during moisture stress. Don not make mid-summer seedings without irrigation.

On seedbeds that are clean and on land that does not puddle or retain water in winter, early to mid-September seedings can be very successful even though the success of these seedings is somewhat dependent upon the timing and sequence of rains in the fall. Generally success is very good for early to mid-September seedings. Orchardgrass and tall fescue establish poorly if seeded in early October while rye grass may do well.

Small landowners often cannot use a cleanup crop. The expense of tillage equipment rental may limit land preparation to one season or one period. An alternative method to the one outlined above is to rotovate the pasture in late fall and leave tilled over winter, then work a new seedbed in the spring by rotovation or plowing followed by dragging into a smooth, firm seedbed. It is important that all past plants be buried so they do not regrow. Usually is it more desirable to rotovate an old pasture prior to plowing in order to achieve more complete burial of the old sod.

When seeding a pasture it is important to provide some coverage of the seed. This is best accomplished by cultipacker seeders or drills with press wheels. This equipment may not be available to small landowners.

An alternative system is to wind or hand broadcast the seed on the surface and then drag the area with a light harrow so the seed is covered about 1/4 to 1/2 inch. Hand raking or possibly dragging with a makeshift fencing material may substitute if done carefully. Loose soil surfaces should be firmed by rolling with a garden or turf roller. A rolled surface is particularly important with later seedings.

Overseeding or spreading seed over an existing pasture normally does not improve pasture species composition. The existing grasses provide too much competition for the establishment of new species seeded. Sometimes if the pasture is disced, broadcast seeded, and dragged or harrowed, some species improvement can be achieved, but the system is not dependable. This method in not recommended and should be used only as a last option.

Fertilizer and lime should be worked into the tilled seedbed at rates suggested by the soil test. In the absence of a soil test, 2 -3 tons of agricultural lime flour plus 25lb. N, 100lb. P205, and 100lb. K20 per acre (5000lb. of 5-20-20) should be worked in to the seedbed. Manure may be plowed down at the rate of 10 tons per acre to replace the fertilizer need; however, an additional application of 22lb. N and 96lb. P205 per acre (20lb. 11-48-0) should be applied in the final seedbed preparation to aid in establishment of the young forage seedlings and supplement the soil phosphorus levels.

SUGGESTED PASTURE MIXES

Orchardgrass and tall fescue are the best adapted grasses to long-term pasture in western Washington. Perennial ryegrass can be used to supplement the other grasses but will not persist for the long permanent pasture periods that are needed by small landowners. Although timothy can be included in the pasture mix, it does not persist well under grazing conditions.

Tall fescue should be used by small landowners where soil drainage is poor. Orchardgrass, which is more acceptable to livestock than tall fescue, does well on moderately drained to well-drained sites. Tall fescue can also be used on dry, well-drained locations and persists better than Orchardgrass under the trampling of horses. Tall fescue is less palatable that orchardgrass. The varieties Fawn and Alta tall fescue are suggested.

Late maturing orchardgrass varieties such as Oennlate or Latar combine well with late-growing clovers. ‘Grassland Hula’ New Zealand white clover should be included in nearly all pasture seedings and the proper legume innoculant should be applied to the seed just prior to seeding. The following table outlines three grass seed mixes that are best for most grazing conditions for horses or beef cattle.

Prepared by Stan Brauen, Ph.D., Extension Agronomist, WSU Puyallup;
Dwight Peabody, Ph.D. (retired), Extension Weed Scientist, WSU Mount Vernon;
and a committee of western Washington county Extension agents.

College of Agriculture and Home Economics, Pullman, Washington.

Issued by Washington State University Cooperative Extension,
Larry G. James, Interim Director, and the U.S. Department of Agriculture in
furtherance of the Acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914. Cooperative Extension programs
and policies are consistent with federal and state laws and regulations on nodiscrimination
regarding race, color, national origin, religion, gender, age, disability, and
gender preference. Slightly revised June 1992.

In the Northwest, turf grasses and pastures are not native and even though specific seeds have been hybridized to do well in our climate, they still need help from us to grow and flourish. Soils in the Northwest are typically acidic because of soil forming factors such as the type of rock the soil comes from, topography and rainfall. To grow pasture successfully, low pH (acidic) soils need to be raised to somewhere between 5.8% and 7% throughout the root zone (top 6 to 8 inches of soil) depending on the soil and grass type. This can be accomplished through the addition of lime—something all pastures in western Washington require in order to stay productive. Adding lime should be an ongoing process every one to three years, depending on your specific conditions.

To know how much lime to use, you will need to know what the pH of your soil is, what type of soil you have and what the nutrient levels are in your soil. These questions can be answered with a standard soil test. A soil test will cost you about $10 to $40 and it will take about a week to get the results. Your test results will tell you: a) pH levels and corresponding lime requirements, b) levels of available plant nutrients, c) levels of toxic heavy metals if abnormal, and d) recommendations on nutrients needed to optimize yield. There are dozens of places where you can send in your soil to have it tested—contact your local Conservation District for a list of soil testing laboratories or visit WSU Soil Testing. We have also used the University of Massachusetts Soil Testing Lab: Common Liming Terms.

The main thing to remember is to use an agricultural lime (naturally occurring) vs. a caustic lime (a chemical compound) that can burn plants. Caustic limes are: calcium oxide, hydrated lime, and quicklime.

When do I apply? What results will I see?

Unlike fertilizers (which can actually hinder grasses when applied at the wrong time) lime can be applied anytime. Optimally, lime should be tilled into soil before planting. On existing pastures it is best to apply lime during a rainy period so it breaks down faster. You may want to rotate the areas where you apply your lime so not all pastures are tied up at once. Limestone is fairly water insoluble and will take time to break down.

When you apply lime, you may see some immediate results, such as greening. As the pH in the soil changes, nutrients such as nitrogen will become available or “released” to plants, giving them a lush, green appearance. Many nutrients get bound up in acidic soil, while plant-damaging elements like aluminum and hydrogen are more available in acidic soil. It is always more cost effective and healthier to correct pH before you determine your fertilizer needs. It is also important to choose the type of fertilizer you use wisely. Ammonium nitrogen fertilizers are one of the leading causes of creating acidic soil while organic fertilizers will help maintain a higher pH, increase microbial soil activity, reduce thatch and make nutrients more available to plants.

Although lime will not kill moss or weeds, as your soil pH becomes healthier you will notice they will be crowded out, especially if you keep your soil from becoming too compacted. Phil Marks, a Northwest seed expert and broker, suggests aerating your soil, especially in the spring before applying lime. When you aerate before spreading lime, the lime will work its way into the soil structure more easily and activate faster.

How much and how often? Where do I purchase lime? How do I apply?

Your soil test will tell you how much and what type of lime to apply while taking into consideration CEC and pH Buffer factors (learn more about these here: Soil Acidity and Liming – Part 2 or UMass Soil testing Results and Interpretation of Soil Tests). How often? As often as necessary to maintain a pH around 6.5 (something you’ll want to monitor through periodic soil testing).

Randy Akada from Wilber Ellis, a local lime wholesaler, says, “The most common mistakes people make trying to use lime and correct pH are:

1. putting down all the recommended lime at once
2. not getting a soil test
3. over fertilizing.”

If your test recommends a high lime quantity, like two tons per acre or more, put it down in two or three batches over the course of a year.

Many feed stores such as LJC Feed sell lime by the bag under various labels such as “Dolopril” (a prilled calcium/magnesium product), “Calpril”(a calcitic lime if your soil doesn’t need magnesium) and “Dolomite” (powdered lime). Anything with a derivative of “dol” in it will have magnesium.

It is best to spread lime through some type of broadcast spreader. Drop spreaders will sometimes leave piles of lime because of the fineness of the product. A few good heavy duty tractor spreaders are shown below if you want to make a worthwhile investment that will save lots of time and labor each year:

Web sites of seeder and spreader manufacturers:

King Kutter
Agri-Fab
John Deere
Earthway

One last piece of advice is to spread lime on a calm day and to get some moisture on your lime right away!

There are three proven keys to creating a balanced soil for a profitable growing program.

• Life in the soil including the microorganisms in the soil, which is the foundation for the second and third keys;
• Physical which include tillage, planting, crop rotation, irrigation, etc.;
• Chemical which include fertilizers, herbicides, insecticides, etc.

The following are recognized benefits of a healthy, balanced soil:

• More friable soil requiring less energy in cultivation
• Softer top soil causing less stress and damage to sprouting plants
• Faster and more complete seed germination frequently requiring less seed per acre
• Better decomposition of organic matter
• Better soil aeration and release of CO2 produced by microbial action in the soil organic matter
• More efficient use of soil moisture often reducing costs of irrigation
• Greater drought resistance
• More rapid water penetration and less erosion
• More effective use of plant nutrients present in the soil by increasing organic conversion to plant available forms
• Faster, larger, healthier root formations, and better nutrient absorption
• More efficient use of plant nutrients with an increased fertilizer and chemical efficiency
• Release of nutrients that otherwise would not be available to the plant
• Less loss of nutrients by leaching
• Soluble plant available nutrients are held in the root zone
• Yield increases, often 20% or more
• Quality increase by escalating carbohydrates (sugars and starches), oils and proteins
• Often greater resistance to insect and fungus damage due to healthier, less susceptible plants
• Less weeds
• Less toxicity

Soil fertility cannot be reduced to a simple formula of N-P-K. The microbial life in the soil is responsible for reaching and maintaining a complete balance of minerals in the form of plant nutrients, readily available for the plant’s uptake. When there is a true (available) nutrient balance within the soil, the plants are able to feed as fast as their needs require. This reduces the stress that often inhibit the plant’s growth. This balance also cuts the number of days until harvest, improving the quality of yields in the process.

In recent years the breakdown of the structure of the surface layers of soil under continuous cultivation and the paralleling decline in their productivity has been a matter of increasing concern.

This decline in production from soils which require constantly increasing expenditures for tillage and water represents ever greater economic problems for the farmer and the nation. Increased usage of chemical fertilizers and inorganic soil conditioners, while serving other beneficial purposes, has not alleviated the problem of deteriorating soil structures, loss of organic matter, and the wastage of water and fertilizers. In many cases perhaps the chemicals used have aggravated the situation.

A productive soil is characterized not necessarily by the mere presence of large quantities of plant nutrients, but by the rapidity with which the soil microbes make these nutrients available to the higher plants. The processes that take place within the soil are, for the most part, dependent first upon the activities of living organisms; and hence, the existence of higher plants depends on the activities of the soil microbes. Dr. S. A. Waksman stated in 1952, “The humus content, plus active microorganisms, is equivalent to a high degree of fertility.”

Another noted microbiologist, Dr. Stanley E. Wedberg, University of Connecticut, went further in stating, “The fertility of the soil is in direct proportion to the number and activity of soil microorganisms.”

As you can see there is correlation or an association to humus content and high microbial activity in the soil; but, where does the humus come from?

Organic matter is the source of energy and food supply for the soil organisms and microorganisms. As organic matter is returned to the soil, it is digested by the microbes. The resulting cellular material is mixed with the living and dead bodies of bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes and other microscopic forms of life. Also, together with certain excretory materials produced during their life cycles, they form a dynamic, ever-changing, organic material called HUMUS.

HUMUS is the major storehouse of plant nutrients in the soil. It is literally the “fat of the land.”

Soil microorganisms are involved in many beneficial activities in the soil. These are decomposition of crop residues, mineralization of soil organic matter, synthesis of soil organic matter, nitrification, fixation of nitrogen, immobilization of mineral nutrients and formation of organic substances which may be both stimulative and toxic to plant growth, depending upon the concentration. Organic substances formed by microorganisms influence soil structure stabilization, binding particles of soil together to permit better water penetration and reduce erosion.

Many cropping and tillage practices that a farmer uses are effective in crop production because of their influence on microbial activity. For example, when the soil is tilled, aeration may be improved and aeration is favorable for the growth of the nitrogen, sulfur and iron oxidizing organisms. When the soil lacks oxygen, it is unfavorable as an environment for many plants and organisms.

Every practice or management system influences microbial activity, which in turn influences the decomposition of plant residues, the availability of nutrients and the soil structure. These all influence crop growth, and the growth of crops determines the soil cover and the ultimate organic matter. This influences the balance between the various types of microorganisms whose actions play a major role in the carbon, nitrogen and mineral cycles and thus govern to a great extent the fertility of the soil.

Each spoonful of mellow soil contains billions of living microscopic organisms. Multiply this by the number of spoonfuls of soil in an acre and you have figures that are astronomical. In fact, the living bacteria alone in an acre of soil of average fertility would weight as much as a medium size cow.

This seething mass of microorganisms constitutes a crop of three to five tons per acre foot of soil that the farmer sustains beneath the soil surface, in addition to the crop that he grows above the ground. If the crop of microorganisms beneath the surface does not have adequate food, the crop above ground will suffer from competition for mineral nutrients and be more susceptible to disease.

“Microorganisms eat at the first table. They are in contact with almost every particle of soil. Plant roots are not. Without micro-organic life, soil, the dynamic perpetual system that sustains terrestrial life, would become an inert mass incapable of providing food. Microorganisms decompose organic material and release elements and organic food for repeated use,” states Dr. T. M. McCalla, Research Microbiologists, University of Nebraska.

Microorganisms need three things: Air, Water and an Energy Source starting with organic matter. John Box, Extension Agronomist, Texas A & M has written, “Mike,” the microbe is your best friend and may be the most important livestock you produce. Microbes live in the surface layers of soil in fantastic numbers. Since we cannot see them, we often neglect them. Mike and his cousins can perform chemical miracles that man has not yet learned to duplicate. Treat him well and give him the raw material with which to work, and he will keep your soils in top production.”

In addition to a food supply, you can help by preventing soil compaction. Compaction reduces air supplies, limiting the ability of microbes to perform. Compaction has an adverse effect on root development and the soil’s ability to absorb and hold water.

Without active soil microorganisms, man would long ago have been covered up by his own waste or would have had to find a way of putting his refuse on the moon or elsewhere; but, thanks to Mike and his cousins, these waste materials are recycled and made into compounds that can be reused over and over.

How alive is your soil? A good microscope could show you, or you could use a visible friend to tell you…the earthworm. Earthworms are one of the best indicators of a well-balanced soil. If you don’t have them in great numbers, then you can be reasonably sure that all is not as well in your soil as it should be. On the other hand, if they are very numerous you can know that in most years your soil will be most productive.

Jack Denton Scott, writing in the August/September, 1968 National Wildlife says about the earthworm, “As a soil chemist he has few equals. The earthworm churns the earth into rich topsoil by blending in vegetable matter from the surface into the ground below, and by bringing mineral-rich subsoil up where plants can use it. He drags leaves down into his burrow where bacteria can work on them. What he eats emerges in little clumps of dirt called Castings which are extremely rich in plant nutrients.

Passing through the worm’s digestive tract, both alkalis and acids become more neutralized. Earth minerals and chemicals are broken down, enriching the soil with particle nutrients that plants and seedlings can more easily assimilate. Experimenters comparing the top six-inch layer of the soil with the castings contained in a form that plants can use found there are five times as much nitrate, twice as much calcium, two and a half times as much magnesium, seven times as much phosphorous and eleven times more potassium. Subsequently, scientists found that the soils content of actinomycetes organisms that play a significant role in decomposing all organic matter into humus multiply seven times as it passes through the earthworm.

Our amazing friend is as energetic as he is talented. Each mature earthworm casts up about half a pound of humus a year. Since a population of 50,000 earthworms in an acre of normal ground is common (seven million have been found), you can figure conservatively that earthworms are producing twelve and a half tons of topsoil a year in each acre of good garden-type soil.

As our knowledge of the soil microbes grows, we will learn ways of increasing those species which are needed to overcome problems which we have reacted by changing the natural environment, or problems which existed before, but which have grown out of hand, such as the various fungal diseases. Certainly the time is here for a deeper look into our soils and the problems that limit their production.

If you have a problem soil, i.e., hardpans, compacted soils, low water holding capacity, excessive toxic salts, poor water penetration or just low productivity from tied up plant food, then look to Mike and his cousins…they can help.

1 – Organic Matter
This is a measurement of fully decomposed humus and not recently plowed in organic matter. They will be part of future measurements as it decomposes. AgPro Renew stimulates biological activity to break this down and increase humus for a higher organic reading.

2 – Phosphorus (P)
P1 is the measure of readily available phosphorus for immediate plant use. P2 is P1 plus the non-available phosphorus in reserve. Bicarbonate. This test measures the readily available phosphorus in basic soils (higher pH over 7.0) as some readings can be neutralized in soil with free lime.

Biological activity is critical in the conversion of P1 to P2. We have 3 products to help, (Renew, Reclaim and AIM) depending on soil compaction and alkalinity. Most soil fertility manuals give the required phosphorus and this amount is often sold to growers.

We suggest subtracting the available amount, helping the conversion process of the unavailable, and buying only what is needed for the specific crop. Anything else increases input costs and does nothing for yield.

3 – Potassium (K)
Higher levels are needed for optimum performance in clay and high organic matter soils. Light soils should have reading of 150-175 ppm while heavy soils do best with 100-250 ppm. Extra potassium may be needed in soils exceeding 20% in magnesium base saturation. Potassium in base saturation should always exceed Sodium levels for maximum yield.

4 – Magnesium (Mg) & Calcium (Ca)
Magnesium and Calcium should be in proper balance for maximum yield. These elements are closely related to soil pH. Both calcium and magnesium are generally higher in high pH soil.

5 – Sodium (Na)
Too much sodium can kill plants and high sodium soil is often referred to as alkali soil. Excessive exchangeable sodium must be replaced by calcium or magnesium or removed by leaching. Sodium often is high as a natural occurrence or where irrigation and evaporation are present. Over 2.5% exchangeable sodium will damage plants and over 5% will require sodium tolerant plants.

Since sodium and potassium are neighbors on the chemical chart and closely associated (both +1), the plant can readily take up excess sodium. This often causes cell eruption opening the plant to disease and attracting harmful insects. A specific function of AgPro Reclaim is to ameliorate sodium damage.

6 – Soil pH
A pH of 7.0 is neutral. Over 7 is alkaline and under 7 are acidic. The most desirable range to work with is 6.0 to 7.0 with highly organic soils often a little lower.

7 – Buffer Index
The buffer index is used to show the amount of lime necessary to raise low pH soil.

8 – Hydrogen (H)
Hydrogen contributes to soil acidity and will not be present in soil above 7.0 pH.

9 – Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
CEC is the ability of the soil to hold nutrients. Calcium, magnesium, potassium and trace minerals with a positive charge are attracted to the negative soil colloid. Heavy soils have a high CEC, while light sandy soils have a low CEC. Low CEC soils often need to be spoon fed, as the soil cannot retain elements. High CEC soils hold more nutrients, but are harder to correct when they are out of balance. Microbial activity helps break down unavailable elements into their base form, which can attach to a soil colloid and is readily available to the plant. Use AgPro RENEW to maximize availability.

10 – Percent Base Saturation
This is a critical area to understand soil balance.
Potassium (K) should be 3-7%.
Magnesium 12-18%.
Calcium 65-75%.
Sodium should be 0.5-1%

Hydrogen is only present in pH below 7.0. There will be virtually no hydrogen in Alkali high pH soil colloids. This weak cation is driven off by stronger elements. Add what you need to be in balance if you have substantial hydrogen.

11 – Trace Elements PPM
An acre of topsoil 6 inches deep weigh about 2 million pounds. To convert ppm to pounds per acre, multiply by 2. Use this to determine how many additional pounds per acre may be needed. DON”T BUY IT IF YOU DON”T NEED IT. Most of the elements will not remain available in the soil.

12 – NITRATE (NO3-N)
This nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N) is the readily available nitrogen. Both high organic matter and microbiological activity increase nitrogen and other trace mineral availability. Overuse of nitrogen can harm the environment and will not stay in the soil. Check your crop manual for what you need, and subtract what you have before applying.

13 – Sulfur (S)
The need for sulfur increases in low CEC soils, low pH soils, and heavily nitrogen fertilized fields. Optimum levels depend on organic content. This measures the readily available sulfate sulfur. Since sulfur will combine with any positive cation that is in excess, it is often used to balance soil through its combination with other minerals to form soluble and highly movable sulfates.

Since sulfur combines to make soluble sulfates that translocate, it should not be high. We have successfully recommended sulfur surface applications where it was listed as “High” on the charts. It simply could not do its job because of compaction. A better course is to solve the compaction problem. We suggest AgPro AIM.

14 – Zinc (Zn)
Zinc can interact with soil phosphates and pH to significantly alter rate recommendations. Optimum ranges is 1.8-2.5 ppm. Zinc is necessary for plant function, especially in reproduction. Residual effects of zinc can last several years so broadcast application should be used when applying a heavy application.

15 – Manganese (Mn)
Optimum 14-22 ppm in DTPA extraction method. (3-6 ppm in 0.1 N HCI extraction). Manganese quickly reverts to unavailable forms shortly after application so band treatments or foliar application is recommended. RENEW, AIM and RECLAIM can help with availability.

16 – Iron (Fe)
Optimum 12-22 ppm in DTPA extraction method. (20-30 ppm in 0.1 N HCI extraction). Chelated forms of iron are best as iron quickly reacts with other elements and can become unavailable for the plant. Again, biological activity keeps iron more readily available>

17 – Copper (Cu)
Optimum 1-1.8 ppm. High organic matter, high soil pH and high nitrogen and phosphorus applications can create copper deficiencies. Still, soil applications of copper can be effective for several years.

18 – BORON (B)
Boron deficiencies are most common on sandy, low organic and high pH soil. Reading should be 1-1.5 ppm.

NOTE : Toxicity range and deficiency range is narrow. Take care not to under or over apply boron.

19 – Excess Lime
This is a visual test of free lime. Too much lime inhibits availability of elements. Elemental sulfur or acid forming fertilizer will be recommended.

20 – Soluble Salts
Excessive salts may cause wilting or death. We suggest immediate application of RECLAIM when stress is visible because of salt or chemical damage. This product has saved many damaged crops since its formulation. Salt deposits can occur naturally, with irrigation or through chemical wastes.

View Contact To: mcr@columbiasprings.org Master Composter Recycler Fall Workshops BACKYARD COMPOSTING WORKSHOPS

Learn the basics of backyard composting. Pre-registration is required. Held at Columbia Springs and CASEE. Tuesday, Sept. 29, 6 – 8 P.M. Columbia Springs Sat., Oct. 24, 10 a.m. – noon CASEE, 11104 NE 149th, Brush Prairie Sat., Nov. 14, 10 a.m. – noon CASEE, 11104 NE 149th, Brush Prairie WORMSHOPS (family-friendly)

Learn about the care and feeding of redworms for vermicomposting.

Build your own worm bin to take home.

The $40 fee includes worms and bin.

Pre-registration and pre-payment by mail are required.

Thursday, Oct. 1, 6 – 8 P.M. Columbia Springs 1 2208 SE Evergreen Hwy, Vancouver Saturday, Nov. 7, 10 a.m. – noon Columbia Springs, 12208 SE Evergreen Hwy, Vancouver

To register for a workshop, e-mail MCR@columbiasprings.org or call (360) 882-4567

Web site: www.columbiasprings.org/mcr

Master Composter Recycler Program Columbia Springs 12602 SE Evergreen Hwy Vancouver, WA 98683 360.882.0936 ext. 224 www.columbiasprings.org

The five R’s: Reduce, Re-use, Recycle, Refuse and Rot!

Fall is just around the corner, and with it will come the arrival of migrating birds to the Columbia Gorge National Wildlife Refuges, Steigerwald Lake, Franz Lake, and Pierce.

While the birds at Franz Lake can only be appreciated from the overlook on Highway 14, guided hikes are scheduled at both Steigerwald Lake and Pierce Refuges. Hikes at Steigerwald Lake NWR will occur on Sunday, September 20, and Saturday, September 26, 2009. Hikes are scheduled at Pierce NWR on Saturdays, September 12 and 26, 2009. All hikes will begin at 8 a.m. and end at 11:30 a.m.

The guided walks are free and open to the public; however, space is limited to 15 people per hike. Please contact Eric Anderson at (360) 887-4106 or Eric_Anderson@fws.gov to register for a hike, obtain directions to the starting location and get additional information if needed.

The Columbia Gorge Refuges sit at a migratory crossroads. Birds use the refuges to rest and refuel on the way to their wintering grounds. At Steigerwald Lake Refuge, waterfowl such as the omnipresent mallard and the colorful wood duck can be seen using the wetlands. Wintering or migrating Canada geese will be resting or feeding in the lake waters. Riparian woodlands can provide sightings of songbirds, such as western tanagers, purple martins, Swainson’s thrushes, Bullock’s orioles, and cedar waxwings. Both outings will be easy walks on the new Gibbons Creek Wildlife Art Trail .

The other two hikes will provide an opportunity to see a refuge that is otherwise closed to the public. Hikers at Pierce NWR will have a chance do some birding through oak woodlands, open fields, and riparian forest. They will be easy walks on flat terrain leading to beautiful views of the Columbia River, refuge wetlands, Beacon Rock, and Hamilton Mountain .

Birdwatchers, both novice and experienced, are invited to come out and get a closer look at the refuges and the nature show created by the changing of the seasons. Experienced guides will identify birds, explain why habitat areas on the refuges provide vital resting stops for migrating birds, and discuss how the refuges are managed. Unusual sightings can surprise and excite birders on any of the hikes.

Bring your binoculars, appropriate footwear/attire, and water. As is always the case in this area in the fall, check the weather forecast and be prepared for rain if necessary.

Regards,

The Columbia Gorge Refuge Stewards
www.refugestewards.org Columbia George